Animals developed different solutions to this problem, such as long living carrier proteins which slowly release volatile pheromones (e.g. However, environmental constraints such as temperature, humidity, wind and water currents influence the longevity and arrival of these signals and therefore can limit the effectiveness of communication via pheromones. Chemical signals released in the environment by one individual and detected by specific devices of another, where they induce a specific reaction, are defined as pheromones. The oldest and most widespread intraspecific communication system involves chemical signals and can be found in aquatic as well as terrestrial vertebrates. We hypothesize that these SPF proteins end up in the females’ circulatory system, where understanding their exact function will require further molecular, physiological and behavioural testing. Our study suggests SPF delivery via traumatic mating in several anuran species: the males have specialized breeding glands in the lips for production and secretion and use their elongated teeth as wounding devices for application. Whole-transcriptome sequencing of these breeding glands showed high expression of sodefrin precursor-like factor (SPF) proteins, which are known to have a pheromone function in multiple amphibian species.
Histological examinations of the males’ lips identified specialized mucus glands, resembling known amphibian pheromone glands.
#ALPHA ZOO FROG SKIN#
Our behavioural observations revealed that males press their upper jaw onto the females’ dorsum during amplexus, leaving small skin scratches with their teeth. Here we investigated the possibility that these structures are used to scratch the females’ skin and apply allohormone pheromones during traumatic mating in several Plectrohyla species.
Males of several species of the frog genus Plectrohyla (Hylidae, Anura) have elongated teeth and develop swollen lips during the breeding season. Although such direct transmission modes of so-called allohormone pheromones are well-documented in invertebrates, they are considered rare in vertebrates. Multiple evolutionary lineages of animals evolved direct sex pheromone transmission during traumatic mating-the wounding of the partner with specialized devices-which helps to avoid signal loss to the environment. Efficient transfer of chemical signals is important for successful mating in many animal species.
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